Fake news and disinformation

Key concepts

Filter bubble: A personalised result given to an internet user through search engines and social networks in which only information that matches their opinion or interests is displayed and information that does not interest them or that expresses different ideas or points of view is hidden. 

Echo Chamber: A closed communication system in which beliefs are amplified and reinforced through the acquisition of information in a biased manner and the repeated circulation of ideas. This phenomenon occurs particularly in the media and on social media platforms.

Disinformation: Information that is intentionally disseminated in the knowledge that it is false or has been manipulated, usually with the aim of influencing public opinion or serving certain interests.

Astroturfing: Communication strategy that consists of masking a publicity campaign as if it were a movement that arose spontaneously or that receives the support of civil society or public opinion. 

Deepfake: Technique of audiovisual manipulation that, using artificial intelligence algorithms, makes it possible to create very realistic video montages containing fictitious situations, often with the aim of misinformation or defamation.

Malinformation: Information that is often manipulated or taken out of context and disseminated with the intention of harming the persons or organisations involved. 

Misinformation: Incorrect information that is spread without malice, usually through ignorance or negligence.

Fake news: News that spreads information that is not true, usually in a premeditated manner, especially on social media, with the intention of damaging someone's reputation or influencing public opinion.

Clickbait: Web content, usually of poor quality, presented under a catchy title or format to get users to click and forward it on social networks, with the sole purpose of obtaining advertising revenue. 

Posttruth: A situation in which objectivity and factual truthfulness have less influence on the formation of public opinion than recourse to emotions, feelings and personal beliefs. 

Fact-checking: The task of confirming and checking facts and data that are presented and disseminated in speeches, especially political speeches, and on social media in order to detect errors or lies. 

All these definitions have been translated from the Termcat website.

Glossaris

• EduCAC. Glossari eduCAC contra la desinformació.    
• Espacio Fundación Telefónica. Fake News. La fábrica de mentiras. Glosario.
• Learn to check. Infodemia, deepfake, fake news… disinformation in 10 words
• Miami Dade College. Lib Guides. Fake News (and how to fight it): Glossary

Organisations and institutions

In Catalonia:

• Col·legi de Periodistes de Catalunya. Educació mediàtica. Since 2009, it has promoted the ‘Premsa a les escoles’ programme, which aims to promote teaching and learning about the media and its impact on society.
• Consell de l'Audiovisual de Catalunya i Generalitat de Catalunya. EduCAC. Communication education programme. Includes a guide with resources for detecting fake news and a series of didactic units on the subject. Registration is required to access the didactic units.
• Desfake. Educació en l’era de la desinformació. Educational project created by Verificat, focused on combating disinformation through media and information literacy. It offers training for teachers and materials for students.
• Plataforma per a l'Educació Mediàtica. This platform aims to be a meeting point for those interested in working in media education and sharing knowledge and good practices. Professional associations, associations and foundations in the field of formal and non-formal education, media associations, university research groups, academics and teachers participate.
• Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Gabinete de Comunicación y Educación. Research group specialising in research in communication, journalism and education. It organises several Master's programmes and also coordinates international projects. One of its research areas is media literacy. The academic publications of its members are compiled in the sections Books and book chapters and Scientific articles on its website.

In Spain:

• Junior Report. An educational platform that promotes media literacy among young people. Its aim is to teach students to analyse and understand the information they consume, developing critical thinking skills and a responsible approach to the media. In its Revista Escolar Digital (RED) project, students from a hundred schools will produce news, interviews and opinion articles in written, podcast or video format throughout the school year.
• Learn to check. An educational and informative project that aims to reflect on disinformation and bring digital verification and media education closer to society. The director of the project is Nereida Carrillo, professor at the Faculty of Communication Sciences at the UAB.

In the rest of the world:

• EAVI (European Association for Viewers Interests): Media Literacy for Citizenship. European non-profit organisation based in Brussels, which advocates media literacy and full citizenship.
• MediaWise. MediaWise is an initiative of the Poynter Institute that offers digital literacy education to help people of all ages identify misinformation, through courses, social networks and programmes such as the  el Teen Fact-Checking Network, , a scholarship programme that brings together teenagers from all over the world dedicated to fact-checking. Verificat coordinates the Spanish edition.
• News Literacy Project. North American non-profit organisation that promotes media literacy to help students and citizens identify reliable information and distinguish it from disinformation. It collaborates with schools and teachers through tools such as Checkology, an online learning platform.
• SUM: Seniors United Against Misinformation. SUM is a European project that develops tools to help seniors identify reliable information in the age of misinformation.
• Unesco. Media and Information Literacy. Unesco programme that aims to promote Media and Information Literacy and Digital Skills to enable people to use information critically and navigate the digital environment safely.

Manuals and infographics

• International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). Infographics Com detectar les notícies falses
• Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional (2024). Manual Cómo protegerme de la desinformación [PDF]
• Ruggeri, Amanda (10 maig 2024). The 'Sift' strategy: A four-step method for spotting misinformation. rticle published on the BBC website explaining the SIFT method for spotting misinformation: S(top), I(nvestigate), F(ind) and T(race).

Studies and conferences

• Learn to Check and Fundación Telefónica. Desmontando la desinformación: jornada de debate y propuestas sobre educación mediática, 6 june 2024 [Video]
• Sádaba, C. i Salaverría, R. (2023). Combatir la desinformación con alfabetización mediática: análisis de las tendencias en la Unión Europea. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, (81), 1–17.

Organizations / Institutions 

In Europe:

• European Commission. Library Guide Disinformation. Offers a selection of relevant sources on disinformation, including EU websites and publications, research results, international publications, academic articles, books and reports.

• EDMO: European Digital Media Observatory. Works to consolidate and facilitate collaboration between a multidisciplinary community of actors dealing with online disinformation. It brings together fact-checkers, media literacy specialists and academic researchers to understand and analyse disinformation.

• EUvsDiSiNFO. It is a European Union project, managed by the East StratCom Task Force, which was launched in 2015 to combat disinformation campaigns, mainly of Russian origin. Its main objective is to raise public awareness of disinformation tactics by identifying and analysing falsehoods and documenting them in an open database.

In the rest of the world:

• Center for Countering Digital Hate. An organisation dedicated to combating hate speech and disinformation online. They conduct research, public campaigns and advocate for policies that promote safety and accountability on social media platforms.

• MisinfoCon. Global movement focused on tackling disinformation in all its forms. Started as a large gathering at MIT in February 2017.

• United Nations. UNRIC Library Backgrounder: Combat Misinformation – Selected Online Resources on Misinformation, Disinformation and Hate Speech. United Nations Resources Guide.

• Verified. An initiative of the United Nations and Purpose, its mission is to help people around the world access verified information.

Regulations

The EU’s Digital Services Act: La Digital Services Act (DSA) of the European Commission imposes new obligations on large online platforms to combat misinformation and increase transparency. Platforms have to implement more rigorous content moderation, explain how their recommendation algorithms work and allow users to opt out of profile-based advertising. In addition, advertising to minors is prohibited and mitigation of risks associated with generative artificial intelligence is required. 

This presentation [PDF] from the Agencia Española de Protección de Datos explains in an informative way what this regulation consists of, with an emphasis on protection measures for children and young people.

The regulation started to be applied in February 2024.

General verification websites

• BILDblog. Blog created in 2004 by several German journalists, especially dedicated to the verification of German media and in the daily newspaper Bild. Only in German.  

• Chequeado. Non-governmental organisation dedicated to fact-checking. It focuses mainly on issues related to Argentina, but also on news affecting Latin America.

• European Fact-Checking Standards Network (EFCSN). European association of fact-checking organisations committed to the standards of independence, transparency and journalistic quality set out in its European Code of Standards for Independent Fact-Checking Organisations.

• FactCheck.org. A project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania. Aims to fact-check and assess the veracity of claims made by politicians, public figures and the media. 

• Factiverse.ai. Fact-checking platform based on artificial intelligence. It is a paid tool.

• Full Fact. An independent fact-checking organisation founded in 2010. Its mission is to combat misinformation and improve the quality of public debate. The verified topics can be found in large thematic sections: education, climate, health, etc. 

• Global fact-checking sites. World map of fact-checking organisations from the Duke Reporters’ Lab at Duke University.

• Google Fact Checker Tools. Google's fake news search engine. Also allows searching by images.  

• Infoveritas. Spanish fact-checking organisation that focuses on combating disinformation in various fields. It carries out media literacy projects and publishes reports on disinformation.  

• International Fact-Checking Network. A network that brings together journalists and organisations, including EFE Verifica, Maldita.es, Verificat i Newtral, dedicated to fact-checking worldwide. Promoted by the Poynter Institute.  

• Maldita.es.  Spanish fact-checking platform that combats disinformation in areas such as politics, health, science and technology. It has different sections, like Maldita Hemeroteca, Maldito Bulo, Maldita Ciencia and Maldita Migración: They are dedicated to debunking fake news and providing verified facts. It is a member of the International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN).

• Media Bias / Fact Check (MBFC). Founded in 2015, it is an independent website that promotes awareness of media bias and misinformation by assessing media bias, factual accuracy and the credibility of media sources.

• Newtral. Spanish platform founded in 2018 by journalist Ana Pastor dedicated to fact-checking and the production of journalistic content. It is also a member of the International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN).

• PolitiFact.com. Fact-checking website founded in 2007 by the Poynter Institute. Its aim is to check the veracity of statements by politicians and other public figures, especially in the context of elections and political speeches in the United States. It allows you to search by politician, topic, level of truthfulness, etc. It also monitors election promises. Another of its projects is Punditfact, a website dedicated to checking the veracity of media claims made by pundits, columnists, bloggers, political analysts and talk show guests.

• Snopes. Página de verificación de hechos, especializada al desmentir mitos, rumores, leyendas urbanas y desinformación viral. Con el tiempo se ha expandido para cubrir una amplia variedad de temas, incluyendo política, salud, ciencia y entretenimiento.

• StopFake.org. A fact-checking platform created by the Kyiv Mohyla Journalism School a Ucraïna in 2014, in response to disinformation related to Russia's annexation of Crimea and the conflict in eastern Ukraine. Its main objective is to debunk fake news and disinformation, especially in the context of the Russia-Ukraine war. It has versions in different languages, including English and Spanish.

• Verificat. Non-profit fact-checking platform founded in Catalonia, dedicated to combating disinformation and manipulation on the internet through fact-checking, especially in the political and social context and media literacy. The training it offers is adapted to different audiences: working journalists, students and citizens in general.

Media verification websites 

• AFP Factual. From Agence France-Presse

• BBC Verify. From British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), the UK's public service broadcaster.

• El Cazabulos. Account to X of elDiario.es 

• Checknews. From the French newspaper Libération 

• Les Décodeurs. From the French newspaper Le Monde 

• EFE Verifica. From EFE

• Fact Check. From the UK's Channel 4 television news channel

• Fact Checks. From the American newspaper The New York Times 

• Fact Checker. From the American newspaper The Washington Post 

• Fets o fakes. From 3cat

• Hechos. Blog of the Spanish newspaper El País to debunk fake news.

• VerificaRTVE. From the Spanish broadcaster RTVE 

Image and video verification

• Learn to check. Verifica Images and Verifica Videos.  Collection of practical tools and resources for image and video verification by the Learn to check project.  

• Miami Dade College. Fake News (and how to fight it): Verifying Images & Videos.

• VerificaRTVE. Caja de herramientas básica de VerficaRTVE. Collection of tools for news verification. It has specific sections to search for photo and video verification tools.

Audio Verification

• Prisa Media. VerificAudio. Prisa Media's tool for verifying audio content using artificial intelligence, developed jointly with Google News Initiative and the company Minsait. Although it is initially designed to serve the newsrooms of Grupo Prisa's media outlets, it also includes a website available to the general public. On this website, listeners can send audios to Prisa Media for verification. Press release about the project (published on March 12, 2024 on Prisa's website). 

Verification on social media

• Learn to check. Verifica Online media.  Collection of practical resources for the verification of news on social networks carried out by the Learn to check project.

• VerificaRTVE. Caja de herramientas de VerficaRTVE. Collection of tools for news verification. It has a specific section to search for verification tools for social media content.

• X Community Notes. An initiative by the platform X that allows users to collaborate in adding context to posts. The goal is to combat misinformation through community-verified annotations. The notes are reviewed and evaluated to ensure they are neutral and useful, and only those that meet these criteria are displayed publicly.

National/European projects

• IVERES. Project co-directed by the Gabinete de Comunicación y Educación de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and RTVE. It aims to develop an automatic or semi-automatic verification system using artificial intelligence tools that adapts to the needs of journalists and makes their task of verifying information easier. 

• FACCTMedia. A project led by the Universitat Pompeu Fabra that aims to examine the evolution of accountability mechanisms and innovations in information verification to combat disinformation, with the aim of developing an educational proposal to include news verification modules in Spanish universities. 

• BBC Monitoring Disinformation Watch Archive. A fortnightly newsletter covering the latest news on disinformation, including case studies, research and reports from the BBC, international media and experts in the field.  

• Journalism Trust Initiative (JTI). Promotes journalistic quality and integrity, addressing the challenges of disinformation today. It establishes criteria for identifying reliable news sources, helping citizens to differentiate verified information from disinformation. This initiative is essential to foster transparency and accountability in journalism, contributing to a well-informed society. 

• Reuters Institute. The Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, a la University of Oxford, is dedicated to exploring the future of journalism worldwide through debate, engagement and research. You can find the reports it publishes on misinformation and related topics in the Research section.

• The Trust project. An international coalition of more than 300 media outlets. Its mission is to develop standards of transparency to help easily assess the quality and credibility of journalism.

Reports  

• Poynter Institute (2024). OnPoynt Report. Report examining current trends in journalism and the media industry.

Organizations / Institutions

• Algorithm watch. Non-profit, non-governmental organisation working towards a society in which algorithms and artificial intelligence do not undermine justice, human rights, democracy and sustainability, but strengthen them. It is based in Berlin and Zurich.

• Full Fact. Independent fact-checking organisation. Full Fact AI section provides a set of tools that use artificial intelligence to analyse text, video, audio and social media for information in need of verification.

• Learn to check. ¿La inteligencia artificial puede parar la desinformación? [Video]

• Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Gabinete de Comunicación y Educación. Research group specialising in research in communication, journalism and education. It organises several Master's programmes and also coordinates international projects. One of its research areas is media literacy. The academic publications of its members are compiled in the sections Books and book chapters and Scientific articles on its website.

Projects

• IA-COM. La Inteligencia Artificial para el fomento del periodismo de calidad y la media literacy: Avances tecnológicos aplicados y desafíos en la era de la desinformación (Artificial Intelligence for the promotion of quality journalism and media literacy: Applied technological advances and challenges in the era of disinformation). R&D&I project of the Gabinete de Comunicación y Educación of Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona for the period 2024-2027. In the news about the launch of the project (November 19, 2024), it is explained that "the main objective is the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into communication techniques, in order to optimize the production processes, renew the formats and redefine the professional roles in journalism. The aim is to improve the quality of journalism in Spain and in the Ibero-American context, while promoting media literacy and fight against disinformation."

• Vera.ai (VERification Assisted by Artificial Intelligence). European project that develops AI tools to help journalists and fact-checkers to detect and combat misinformation in various multimedia formats.

Development of Artificial Intelligence tools to detect fake news

• Cátedra RTVE-UAB. Proyecto IVERES: Identificación, Verificación y Respuesta.

• IMDEA Networks, Cyprus University of Technology i LSTECH España SL. HyperGraphDis.

• Universidad de Granada. CaBot.

Reports

• Panizo Lledot, A., Alejandro D’Antonio Maceiras, S., Huertas Tato, J., Villar Rodríguez, G., Anguera de Sojo Hernández, A., Camacho Fernández, D. (2024). Luchando contra la desinformación mediante la inteligencia artificial. Fundación BBVA.

• Los deepfakes: una de las amenazas más destacadas en el panorama actual de la desinformación y la manipulación digital (20th March 2024). Blog Universo Abierto.
• U.S. Government Accountability Office (March 2024). Combating deepfakes [PDF]
• University of Arkansas. Libguides. Misinformation and Disinformation: Deepfakes

Research institutions (Catalonia)

• Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Department of Journalism and Communication Science. Gabinete de Comunicación y Educación. Research group specialising in research into communication, journalism and education. It organises different master's degree programmes and also coordinates national and international projects. Among them, we would like to highlight Oi2. Observatorio para la Innovación de los Informativos en la Sociedad Digital. This is a project of RTVE and the Gabinete that promotes innovation in television news in the digital era. It focuses on attracting new audiences, sustainability and audience participation. The Publicaciones section contains open access reports on disinformation and artificial intelligence applied to journalism. On November 19, 2024, the Gabinete announced the launch of a new R+D+I project for the period 2024-2027: IA-COM. La Inteligencia Artificial para el fomento del periodismo de calidad y la media literacy: Avances tecnológicos aplicados y desafíos en la era de la desinformación (Artificial Intelligence for the promotion of quality journalism and media literacy: Applied technological advances and challenges in the era of disinformation).

• Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. InCom-UAB. Observatori de la Comunicació a Catalunya. News highlights on fake news.

• Universitat de Barcelona. UB Chair on Artificial Intelligence and the Media. In collaboration with 3cat, it explores the impact of AI on the media and promotes collaboration between academia and professionals to adapt to these changes, offering training and research activities.

• Universitat Oberta de Catalunya. Communication Networks and Social Change (CNSC). The main objective of CNSC is to analyse several relevant social challenges of the network society - such as the increase in social inequalities, the crisis of democracy and demographic ageing - and their interaction with digital communication. 

• Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Grup de Recerca en Comunicació Política, Periodisme i Democràcia (POLCOM-GRP). The aim of the group is the interdisciplinary study of the interactions between the political system, the media system and the citizenry, and how these interactions affect the democratic culture of society.  

• Universitat Ramon Llull. STREAM: Society, Technology, Religion and Media. The STReaM group explores the intersection of media, religion, culture, politics, and technology to understand the impact of communication and the humanities on contemporary society. One of its key research areas focuses on the influence of social media and technology on politics, communication, and society.

• Universitat Rovira i Virgili. ASTERISC. Grup de Recerca en Comunicació. The group's lines of research are risk communication, political communication, digital journalism, the relationship between media and cultural identity, and inequalities in access to the media.

"Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers." Nacions Unides. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 19 (1948)

The fight against fake news can lead to at least two dangers: governments falling back on censorship and political control to combat this threat, or governments leaving editorial control of the media in the hands of large platforms such as Google. How do we balance this control with the right to freedom of expression?

On the other hand, freedom of expression and, especially, freedom of the press are key to countering disinformation. 

Below is a selection of resources that provide information on the state of censorship and press freedom around the world.

Censorship and media silences

• Civio. Spanish non-profit organisation that advocates for transparency in governments and public institutions, in order to achieve accountability and to ensure that information reaches the public.
• Index on Censorship. Non-profit organisation that campaigns for freedom of expression around the world. Publishes work by censored writers and artists, promotes debate and monitors threats to freedom of expression.
• Mèdia.Cat. Anuari. Formerly known as the Anuari dels silencis mediàtics, it has been published since 2010 and brings together journalistic reports that address issues that have not been covered by the mainstream media: ‘It presents a compilation of in-depth reports on issues that have not been covered by the daily headlines or opened by the head of news and, at the same time, critically examines issues that too often have marked the agenda, with analytical articles by experts, infographics and special content.’
• Mèdia.cat. Mapa de la censura. A map that, in the words of its creators, ‘since 2015 has collected facts or situations that may pose an impediment or threat to the right to information and freedom of expression in the Catalan Countries.’
• Project Censored. Project born at the University of Sonoma in 1976 and currently promoted by the Media Freedom Foundation. It monitors news that has been omitted, boycotted or inappropriately treated by the main media in the United States.

Press freedom

• Cartooning For Peace / Dessins pour la Paix. Organisation of press illustrators that promotes projects to promote press freedom, media education and the fight against fake news.
• European Centre for Press and Media Freedom (ECPMF). Mapping Media Freedom. Map that evaluates media freedom in European countries.
• Freedom House. Global Freedom Status. Map that evaluates 210 countries and territories according to the state of democracy, political rights, civil rights and Internet freedom. The same institution publishes the annual Freedom on the Net report (link to the 2024 report).
• Reporteros sin Fronteras (RSF). Clasificación Mundial de la Libertad de Prensa. This non-governmental organisation, which defends press freedom around the world and journalists persecuted for their professional activity, publishes an annual update of the World Press Freedom Index, which is a report that compares the degree of freedom enjoyed by journalists and the media in 180 countries and territories. You can read the overall analysis of the 2024 edition.
• Unesco. World Press Freedom Day. Website dedicated to promoting the celebration of 3 May, World Press Freedom Day. This event was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1993, and since then it has been celebrated every year around the world with various activities such as congresses, talks and exhibitions. The central event is a congress organised by Unesco itself, during which the Unesco/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize is awarded to a person, organisation or institution that has made an outstanding contribution to the defence and/or promotion of press freedom anywhere in the world, and especially when this has been achieved at the expense of risk and danger.

There are a number of satirical media that use humour, irony and exaggeration to comment on current events and social issues. Although they can sometimes misinform, their main purpose is entertainment and their falsehood is generally evident to the public.

• Babylon Bee (United States)

• Le Gorafi (France)

• Lercio (Italy)

• El Mundo Today (Spain)

• The Onion (United States)

• Der Postillon (Germany)

• Private Eye (United Kingdom)

• Sensacionalista (Brazil)

• De Speld (Netherlands)

• Waterford Whispers News (Ireland)

• Weekly World News (United States)

• It is also appropriate to note that the Spanish satirical magazine Mongolia contains a section, ‘Reality news’, in which there is no humour, but rather a discussion of the media and its collusion with political and judicial power.

On the other hand, the networks, especially the X network, have been filled with parody accounts posing as accounts of real personalities with humorous intent. For example: 

• @viejoUS (Joe Biden)

• @RealDonalDrumpf (Donald Trump)

• @norcoreano (Kim Jong-un)

• @Idiazaquso (Isabel Díaz Ayuso)

• Between humour, denunciation and public service there is the account @ahorrandoclick1, which summarises in a single sentence the ‘click-bait’ news published by the media, with the intention that readers do not have to click on the link.

Test yourself and find out if these images or news stories are real:

• Ashland University. Archer Library. Fake News Challenge  

• BBC Bitesize. Quiz: Artificial or real?

• Col·legi de Periodistes de Catalunya. El Polígraf. Campaign aimed at promoting understanding and knowledge of the fundamentals of journalism and consisting of a series of quizzes that test participants in several key areas of media literacy. 

• Northwestern's Kellogg School of Management. Detect Fakes  

• Snopes. Quiz [Each day offers a different quiz]

The UAB Libraries offer you a series of resources to find more information about fake news:

UAB Libraries search engine. You can find all kinds of documents by searching for keywords such as fake news, fact checking, etc. You can also search by subject:

• Desinformació

• Ètica periodística

• Govern i premsa

• Mitjans de comunicació de massa - Manipulació

• Mitjans de comunicació de massa - Objectivitat

• Periodisme - Objectivitat 

• Premsa - Manipulació

• Propaganda

• Rumor públic

• Televisió - Manipulació 

• Veritat i mentida - Aspectes socials 

Communication and Mass Media Complete. Database of scientific literature on communication. You can search by keyword or search by subject Fake news. Access restricted to UAB users.

Statista. Noticias falsas y desinformación en España - Datos estadísticos. Website with multiple data in the statistics portal Statista. Access restricted to UAB users.

Bibliography 

• Digital Future Society. Informe Cómo combatir la desinformación 
• Monogràfic de la revista El profesional de la información (2019): Posverdad y desinformación
• Monograph of the magazine Index.Comunicación (2024): Desinformación y confianza en los medios
• Mèdia.cat. Podcast: "Els perills de la desinformació" (chapter 14 of the L'Observatori, the podcast of Mèdia.cat) (February 2024) 
• Research by La Marea (2024) on companies that use fraudulent techniques to remove information on the internet about clients in order to restore their digital reputation: Part One, Part Two and Part Three. 
• Reuters Institute. Digital News Report 2024
• Universidad de Navarra. Digital News Report España 2024.

Guides

• College of the Redwoods. LibGuides. Research GuidesBias, Fake News, Hoaxes, & Lies

• Cornell University. LibGuides. Misinformation, Disinformation, and Propaganda

Expositions  

• Fundación Telefónica (2023). Fake news. La fábrica de mentiras. An exposition that explored the phenomenon of fake news throughout history, analysing how it is generated, how it spreads and how it can be detected.

• Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Communication Library and General Newspaper Archives (2018). Fake news. On-site and virtual exposition of the Communication Library and General Newspaper Archives on the manipulation of the truth in the press and how to combat fake news.

• Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Communication Library and General Newspaper Archives (2024). Fake news. On-site exposition on the ground floor of the library, which updates the 2018 exposition. Visitable between September and November 2024.